Research Methodology

[3.3] Research Design & Research Methodology

A research methodology references the procedural rules for the evaluation of research claims and the validation of the knowledge gathered while research design functions as the research blueprint. Research methodology occupies a position of unique importance. A methodology does not simply frame a study but it identifies the research tools and strategies that will be employed and relates their use to specified research aims. Research scholars have identified three main purposes which is exploratory, descriptive, and the explanatory purpose.

Exploratory

Exploratory research unfolds through focus group interviews, structured or semi-structured interviews with expert and a search of the relevant literature. Exploratory research investigates a specified problem phenomenon for the purpose of shedding new light upon it and consequently uncovering new knowledge.

Descriptive

Descriptive research purpose the collection, organization and summarization of information about the research problem and issues identified therein. It renders complicated phenomenon and issues more understandable. The descriptive aspect of a research is simply stated the- who, what, when, where, why and how of the study.

Explanatory

Explanatory functions to highlight the complex interrelationships existent within and around a particular phenomenon and contained within the research problem. It is an explanation of the complex web of interrelated variables identified and follows directly from a clearly stated central research hypothesis and research question.

[3.4] Research Approach

The research approach is a critically important decision. The research approach does not simply inform the research design but it gives the researcher the opportunity to critically consider how each of the various approaches may contribute to or limit his study, allow him/her to satisfy the articulated objectives and design an approach which bests the research’s requirement.

The Deductive versus the Inductive Approach

Deductive approach is a testing of theories. The researcher proceeds with a set of theories and conceptual precepts in mind and formulates the study’s hypotheses on their basis. The inductive approach follows from the collected empirical data and proceeds to formulae concepts and theories in accordance with the data.

The Qualitative versus the Quantitative approach

The quantitative tools for data analysis generally borrow from the physical science in that they are structured in such a way so as to guarantee, objectivity, generalizability and reliability. 
The Qualitative methods include interviews, observations, focus groups, are designed to explicate the underlying meaning / cause behind selected phenomenon - qualitative tools analyze the reasons behind particular phenomenon.

[3.5] Research Strategy

Three research strategies or plans for responding to there research question are experimental. The survey and the case study strategies. A researcher may select one or even all three of these strategies depending on the requirement of the research and the nature of the study. The current research shall adopt the conceptual model approach and it’s particularly useful for the collection of well-defined information and its later discussion and analysis. This approach allows for the explanation of facts through theory. The nature and concerns of the current research have led to the determination of the imperatives of extensively exploiting the conceptual model approach. The research shall focus on the critique and examination of consumer marketing theory.

Qualitative Sampling

When selecting a sample for a qualitative survey, a different set of priorities must be considered. Sample size is not important rather the establishment of observable patterns. The sample should be large enough to be credible, given the purpose of evaluation, but small enough to permit adequate depth and detail for each case or unit in the sample. Qualitative samples tend to be purposive than random. Sample size need to be kept reasonably small in order to justice to the rich evidence provided by qualitative studied and to make best use of the resources available for intensive research. Sample size was primarily determined by that which was realistically available to the researcher.

Qualitative Data Collection

The researcher should first identify the type and nature of the required data and then select those collection methods which are best suited to the collection of the identified data types. In depth interviews, allow the researcher to crosscheck the survey results and to explore the social realities behind the identified trends, to gain a deeper insight into phenomenon he/she is studying, and lead to the generation of insightful stories rather than statistical information and permit a better understanding of organizational complexity. Interviews should adopt a range of different interviewing styles. Interviewer should be free to pursue such lines and as a result, not all questions in the pro-forma interview framework necessarily require being covered in all interviews.

Interview Strategy

The researcher decides that a structured approach would be too rigid and would prevent the researcher from interacting with the interviews and asking follow-up, spontaneous questions. It also prevent the interviews from spontaneously adding their own remarks and observations.

Transcribing

The interviews will be recorded following the permission of the interviewees. Interviews will be transcribed by the researcher.

~Session 6~ What makes effective writing??

Articles:

The Elements of Effective Writing

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Jonathan_Oates

       'All of the most effective communications are planned. In the second part of the planning process, we have to think about several important writing decisions. Together these will determine the effectiveness of our writing.

Decisions on structure and layout are very important. Subject to the guidelines offered (e.g. word count, running time etc), one choice of structure over another can do much to affect 'standout', readability, look and feel. On some occasions, sections should be used to break up a whole into manageable parts. Perhaps these are better left undeclared or unseen (though they may have been used to structure the piece); perhaps very obvious signposting is an advantage.

     Longer sentences make for higher density, and slower pace. A paragraph or section full of long sentences is usually more difficult to take in than a shorter one, with shorter sentences - at least at a glance.

The use of language itself is more complicated a matter than it first appears to be. Style, voice (impersonal, or personal - I, you, third person, we etc) register, tone of voice, and diction all need to take into account our positioning as author or publisher, given our audience, the objectives of the communication, and the medium. A more or less formal style might be appropriate. A needlessly formal or expansive treatment can seem pretentious and might be alienating. On the other hand, an excessively simplified diction can easily appear condescending.

     Words and phrases need to be chosen with care, asking more or less of the reader, and creating a particular sort of impression. A similar point needs to be made in relation to idiomatic words or phrases, technical language or jargon, and other culturally-specific references.

    Proper sentence construction follows on from choices about style and register, but voices and tenses should be kept consistent as far as possible. Grammatical error should be avoided, except where strict construction would make for stilted English; 'this is the sort of bloody nonsense up with which I will not put', said Churchill.

     Finally, spelling errors, typographical errors, or 'typos', and other production errors need to be corrected. Whilst production errors do not necessarily impede a communication's effectiveness, their risk and potential cost tend to vary with the audience.

     The indignation of a lay readership over a journalist's or editor's fallibility may not stop it from enjoying a piece, or continuing to take a newspaper. On the other hand, a large procurement function trying to form an overall impression of the likely competence, reliability, and accuracy of a professional firm, may, whether consciously or not, look less favourably on the production errors in a technical consulting bid.

Jonathan Oates Principal Editor, British Writing Bureau'

 ~~ACTIVITY 1~~

| List down important elements that contribute towards effective writing?|

Facts given in the article

1. Longer sentences cause higher density and slower pace

 - harder to take at a glance

2. A needlessly formal/expansive treatment can seem pretentious and might be alienating

3. Choose words and phrases with care

4. Voices and tenses should be kept consistent

5. Spelling errors, typographical errors or "typos" and other production errors need to be corrected

Reflection 

| How to apply these elements in your technical writing? |

1. Keep it short and simple - straight to the point

2. Make it less formal to enable readers to understand and relate to what is written

3. Use simple English and if there are technical terms, explain in simple terms

4. Use passive voice and present-simple,past-simple,past participant tense

5. Proof-read written report at all times

PRUNING THE REDUNDANT

Avoid saying the same thing twice.

• Many uneducated citizens who have never attended school continue to vote for better schools.

A phrase that repeats itself—like "true fact," "twelve noon," "I saw it with my own eyes"—is sometimes called a pleonasm.

Redundant phrases are bad habits just waiting to take control of your writing. Beware of the following.

Redundancy	The Lean Version
12 midnight	midnight
12 noon	noon
3 am in the morning	3 am
absolutely spectacular/phenomenal	spectacular/phenomenal
a person who is honest	an honest person
a total of 14 birds	14 birds
biography of her life	biography
circle around	circle
close proximity	proximity
completely unanimous	unanimous
consensus of opinion	consensus
cooperate together	cooperate
each and every	each
enclosed herewith	enclosed
end result	result
exactly the same	the same
final completion	completion
frank and honest exchange	frank exchange or honest exchange
free gift	gift
he/she is a person who . . .	he/she
important/basic essentials	essentials
in spite of the fact that	although
in the field of economics/law enforcement	in economics/law enforcement
in the event that	if
job functions	job or functions
new innovations	innovations
one and the same	the same
particular interest	interest
period of four days	four days
personally, I think/feel	I think/feel
personal opinion	opinion
puzzling in nature	puzzling
refer back	refer
repeat again	repeat
return again	return
revert back	revert
shorter/longer in length	shorter/longer
small/large in size	small/large
square/round/rectangular in shape	square/round/rectangular
summarize briefly	summarize
surrounded on all sides	surrounded
surrounding circumstances	circumstances
the future to come	the future
there is no doubt but that	no doubt
usual/habitual custom	custom
we are in receipt of	we have received

Abbreviated Redundancies A special breed of redundancy is proliferating in our modern world as we increasingly rely on abbreviations and acronyms in the busyness of our technology. Some people insist it is redundant to say "ATM machine" because ATM means Automated Teller Machine. They add that it is redundant to say "HIV virus" because HIV means Human Immunodeficiency Virus, "AIDS syndrome" because AIDS means Acquired ImmunoDeficiency Syndrome, "CPU unit" because CPU means Central Processing Unit. It sounds particularly silly when we come up with a plural such as "CPU units" — Central Processing Unit units. It is perhaps too easy to get caught up in this, however. "CD disk" can be redundant, but nowadays the abbreviation CD can refer to a number of things, including the machine itself. Occasionally, an abbreviation — like CD, ATM — becomes more of an idea unto itself than a shortened version for a set of words, and the abbreviation ought to be allowed to act as modifier.

Reducing Clauses to Phrases, Phrases to Single Words

Be alert for clauses or phrases that can be pared to simpler, shorter constructions. The "which clause" can often be shortened to a simple adjective. (Be careful, however, not to lose some needed emphasis by over-pruning; the word "which," which is sometimes necessary [as it is in this sentence], is not evil.)

• Smith College, which was founded in 1871, is the premier all-women's college in the United States.
• Founded in 1871, Smith College is the premier all-women's college in the United States.
  
• Citizens who knew what was going on voted him out of office.
• Knowledgeable citizens voted him out of office.
  
• Recommending that a student copy from another student's paper is not something he would recommend.
• He wouldn't recommend that a student copy from another student's paper.
  (Or "He would never tell a student to copy . . . .")

Phrases, too, can sometimes be trimmed, sometimes to a single word.

• Unencumbered by a sense of responsibility, Jasion left his wife with forty-nine kids and a can of beans.
• Jasion irresponsibly left his wife with forty-nine kids and a can of beans. (Or leave out the word altogether and let the act speak for itself.)

Intensifiers that Don't Intensify

Avoid using words such as really, very, quite, extremely, severely when they are not necessary. It is probably enough to say that the salary increase is inadequate. Does saying that it is severely inadequate introduce anything more than a tone of hysteria? These words shouldn't be banished from your vocabulary, but they will be used to best effect when used sparingly.

Avoiding Expletive Constructions

This sounds like something a politician has to learn to avoid, but, no, an expletive construction is a common device that often robs a sentence of energy before it gets a chance to do its work. Expletive constructions begin with there is/are or it is.

• There are twenty-five students who have already expressed a desire to attend the program next summer. It is they and their parents who stand to gain the most by the government grant.
• Twenty-five students have already expressed a desire to attend the program next summer. They and their parents stand to gain the most by the government grant.

Further information about expletive constructions is available on our page on The Verb "To Be".

Phrases You Can Omit

Be on the lookout for important sounding phrases that add nothing to the meaning of a sentence. Such phrases quickly put a reader on guard that the writer is trading in puffery; worse, they put a reader to sleep.

Many but not all of these unnecessary phrases have been taken from Quick Access: Reference for Writers by Lynn Quitman Troyka. Simon & Schuster: New York. 1995. The examples, however, are our own. No  political inferences should be drawn from these examples; they are merely models of form.

all things considered	All things considered, Connecticut's woodlands are in better shape now than ever before. All things considered, Connecticut's woodlands are in better shape now than ever before.
as a matter of fact	As a matter of fact, there are more woodlands in Connecticut now than there were in 1898. as a matter of fact, There are more woodlands in Connecticut now than there were in 1898.
as far as I'm concerned	As far as I'm concerned, there is no need for further protection of woodlands. As far as I'm concerned, there Further protection of woodlands is not needed.
at the present time	This is because there are fewer farmers at the present time. This is because there are fewer farmers now.
because of the fact that	Woodlands have grown in area because of the fact that farmers have abandoned their fields. Woodlands have grown in area because farmers have abandoned their fields.
by means of	Major forest areas are coming back by means of natural processes. Major forest areas are coming back through natural processes. (or naturally)
by virtue of the fact that	Our woodlands are coming back by virtue of the fact that our economy has shifted its emphasis. Our woodlands are coming back by virtue of the fact that because our economy has shifted its emphasis.
due to the fact that	Due to the fact that their habitats are being restored, forest creatures are also re-establishing their population bases. Due to the fact that Because their habitats are being restored, forest creatures are also re-establishing their population bases.
exists	The fear that exists among many people that we are losing our woodlands is uncalled for. The fear that exists among many people that we are losing our woodlands is uncalled for.
for all intents and purposes	The era in which we must aggressively defend our woodlands has, for all intents and purposes, passed. The era in which we must aggressively defend our woodlands has, for all intents and purposes,passed.
for the most part	For the most part, people's suspicions are based on a misunderstanding of the facts. For the most part, pPeople's suspicions are based on a misunderstanding of the facts.
for the purpose of	Many woodlands, in fact, have been purchased for the purpose of creating public parks. Many woodlands, in fact, have been purchasedfor the purpose of creating as public parks.
have a tendency to	This policy has a tendency to isolate some communities. This policy has a tendency tends to isolate some communities.
in a manner of speaking	The policy has, in a manner of speaking, begun to Balkanize the more rural parts of our state. The policy has, in a manner of speaking, begun to Balkanize the more rural parts of our state.
in a very real sense	In a very real sense, this policy works to the detriment of those it is supposed to help. In a very real sense, this This policy works to the detriment of those it is supposed to help.
in my opinion	In my opinion, this wasteful policy ought to be revoked. In my opinion, thisThis wasteful policy ought to be revoked.
in the case of	In the case of this particular policy, citizens of northeast Connecticut became very upset. Citizens of northeast Connecticut became very upset about his policy.
in the final analysis	In the final analysis, the state would have been better off without such a policy. In the final analysis, the The state would have been better off without such a policy.
in the event that	In the event that enough people protest, it will probably be revoked. If enough people protest, it will probably be revoked.
in the nature of	Something in the nature of a repeal may soon take place. Something in the nature of like a repeal may soon take place.
in the process of	Legislators are already in the process of reviewing the statutes. Legislators are already in the process of reviewing the statutes.
it seems that	It seems that they can't wait to get rid of this one. It seems that they They can't wait to get rid of this one.
manner	They have monitored the activities of conservationists in a cautious manner. They have cautiously monitored the activities of conservationists.
the point I am trying to make	The point I am trying to make is that sometimes public policy doesn't accomplish what it set out to achieve. The point I am trying to make is that some Sometimes public policy doesn't accomplish what it set out to achieve.
type of	Legislators need to be more careful of the type of policy they propose. Legislators need to be more careful of the type ofpolicy they propose.
what I mean to say is	What I mean to say is that well intentioned lawmakers sometimes make fools of themselves. What I mean to say is that well Well intentioned lawmakers sometimes make fools of themselves.

In his eminently readable Web site, "BANNED FOR LIFE," Tom Mangan has collected the "favorite" clichés of editors and journalism instructors from around the world. If you read too much of this at once, you'll stop talking.

Eliminating Clichés and Euphemisms

A cliché is an expression that was probably, once upon a time, an original and brilliant way of saying something. Imagine being the first person to say something as clever as "She fell head over heels in love" or "She's cool as a cucumber." Sadly, though, such expressions eventually lose their luster and become trite and even annoying. Writers who indulge in tired language are not being respectful to their readers, and writers return the compliment by losing attention and going on to something else.

It is particularly galling when a writer or speaker relies on tired language to the point of creating a hodge-podge of mixed clichés and assorted vegetables. A mayor of Austin, Texas, once announced, to everyone's bewilderment, "I wanted all my ducks in a row, so if we did get into a posture, we could pretty much slam-dunk this thing and put it to bed."

Here is a list of trite expressions to look for in your writing and speaking. Create your own list of clichés by listening for them on radio talk-shows and casual conversation. Watch television ads and the headlines of sports columnists to find clichés that writers are playing with, adapting the meaning of a hackneyed expression until it turns into something clever (or, sometimes, not so clever). Click HERE for a handful of examples taken from the sports pages of The Hartford Courant.

We also recommend Brian Murphy's Big List of Clichés, for a truly exhausting (but fun) list of things to avoid saying.

acid test at loose ends babe in the woods better late than never brought back to reality black as pitch blind as a bat bolt from the blue busy as a bee/beaver cat's meow cool as a cucumber cool, calm, and collected crack of dawn crushing blow cry over spilt milk dead as a doornail dog-eat-dog world don't count your chickens dyed in the wool easier said than done easy as pie feathered friends face the music flash in the pan flat as a pancake gentle as a lamb go at it tooth and nail good time was had by all greased lightning happy as a lark head over heels heavy as lead horns of a dilemma hour of need keep a stiff upper lip ladder of success last but not least looking a gift horse in the mouth

meaningful dialogue moving experience needle in a haystack open-and-shut case pain in the _____ point with pride pretty as a picture put it in a nutshell quick as a flash/wink rat race ripe old age ruled the roost sad but true sadder but wiser set the world on fire sick as a dog sigh of relief slow as molasses smart as a whip sneaking suspicion spread like wildfire straight as an arrow straw that broke the camel's back strong as an ox take the bull by the horns thin as a rail through thick and thin tired but happy to coin a phrase to make a long story short trial and error tried and true under the weather white as a sheet wise as an owl work like a dog worth its weight in gold

A euphemism is a word or phrase that substitutes for language the speaker or writer feels is too blunt or somehow offensive. When people die, we say, instead, that they have "passed away" or "met their maker" or "gone to sleep." And, at the silly extreme, a garbage collector is a sanitation engineer, a janitor is a custodial engineer. What the writer must guard against is the tendency of euphemisms not only to shield readers from harsh reality but also to obfuscate meaning and truth. The military is especially guilty of this: bombing raids become surgical air-strikes and armiesbecome peace-keeping forces. Good writing tells the truth and tells it plain.

Sourced from http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/concise.htm

Session 5 :: Reflection On Activities

Activity 1 :: What is Literature Review? What are the important points you have learnt?

Facts
1. Literature review is an account of what has been published on a research area, which appears as a chapter in a research report. It describes, summarizes, evaluates and clarifies reviewed studies.

2. The reasons for writing literature review are:

      ·         To provide a context for the research

    ·         To justify the research

      ·         To illustrate how the subject has been studied previously

      ·         To outline gaps in previous research

      ·         To show researches’ understanding of the topic area studied

3. Two important skills needed – information seeking and critical assessment

4. Steps in writing literature review:

•  a.       Read selected material and write brief critical synopsis-annotated     bibliography

• 
  

           b.   Record author’s full name, publication year, title, publisher, publication place and volume/page number

               c.       Write individual sections according to theme

           d.       Tie all sections together with an introduction, conclusion and some addition and revision

5. Using secondary data in a report

Summary Writing

i) preview and rapid reading-skim and scan

ii) read carefully to determine main ideas for each paragraph

iii) link main ideas,improvise

iv) construct sentences clearly to form a summary

Direct Quotation-Important notes

i) should be quoted word by word and in full

ii) preferable only in these situations-when citing important statements of information, opinion or policy; and doing interpretations of literary works

iii) it should be preceded by introductory phrases

Reflections:

Literature review is not a difficult chapter to learn. If one understands what literature review is and follows the suggested steps, then it won’t be a problem. Having said that, in order to get the right ideas across, it has to be continuously practiced. The skills to extract the gist of an article, summarizing and paraphrasing comes in due time.

Exercise:

1. Paraphrased text

Police Superintendant Ali Bin Rejab was quoted by Technology Magazine (2005) as agreeing to the usefulness of hand phones when one encountered problems on the road. However, he claimed that a lot of road users misused hand phones to the point of distracting them, hence leading towards accidents.

2. Paraphrased text

Adam Harris (Permata Magazine) claimed that youths, including university students are attracted to the usefulness of hand phones. This can be seen through  a significant trend of increment in the number of students with hand phones over these few years.

Activity 2 :: What are the important issues that need to be learnt?

Facts:

1. Literature review is not just merely a listing of information available, or a set of summaries.

2. Literature review must be organized around and related directly to the research questions one is developing.

3. Every paraphrased text, direct quotation must follow proper text citation.

Reflections :

The important point is, for one to organize articles into categories or areas of research. Once all are grouped, it will be easier to extract vital information necessary. Using suitable verbs might prove to be a challenge, because one might encounter problems of incorrect selection of verbs. 

Assignment 5 ~ Exercise 1

Issue: Declining participation in sports among students

problem statement:

Universiti Kuala Lumpur aims to mould wholesome graduates, equipped with strong technical knowledge and astute mind. One of the approaches used by the University is by encouraging students to participate in various games and sports offered. Universiti Kuala Lumpur provides venues for sporting events as and when they are needed. However, there seems to be a trend of decline in participation in sports among students for the past 3 years. This can be seen in the dismal amount of participation in events like Sports Day and try-outs leading to Interuniversity competitions. This research is carried out to determine the reasons behind the decline. Respondents will be the University staff and students. If such trend do exist, what are the ways to encounter this issue thus attracting students to participate actively. 

Issue: The hazards of using hand phones among students

problem statement:

The advancement in information technology and communication (ICT) sees a usage growth among youths,particularly among university and college students. Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Division listed hand phone as the gadget of choice. A person is considered hype if he or she owns a Blackberry or an Iphone. With attractive features like Internet surfing and instant messaging (IM) at the tip of ones' fingers, latest range of hand phones prove to be essential in a student's life. This continuous dependency on hand phones could trigger dire effects for students. Among the concerns are misusing handphones for inappropriate activities such as cheating,distribute pornographic materials-downloading and spreading etc.A research will be conducted to identify the effects of handphones on University Kuala Lumpur students and therefore provide solutions in reducing or mitigating such effects.

Issue or Problem: A study on the disposal of machining waste among SMEs in Malaysia

problem statement:

The hazardous waste in Malaysia has been consistently increasing over the years according to United Nations Statistical Division. One of the items which forms the hazardous waste  is the machining waste which has its source from the production workshop, where they use  machines such as Lathe,  Drilling,  Milling and Grinding machines for material removal process. According to UNEP, SMEs are the major polluters of the environment in the world. 

 

Reflection-v3.0

Second up, a project about e-learning. There are several unappropriate format that we found ;

1. No title provided.
2. Introduction have no specific statement and not well understanding.
3. Scope of the project and the background of study are not clear stated.
4. Include some unnecessary information.

Reflections-v2.0

Activity-Important Issues Learnt From Sample Introduction

We were given two sets of Introduction samples to evaluate and find whatever was lacking from both texts. 

First up,a project titled "Design and Development of Stair Climbing Trolley". These were what we noticed from the text :

1. Project Overview was not significant to Introduction. Best suited position? Abstract.

2. It didn't follow the inverted pyramid module. Hence,a one-liner of general statement was found. Lack of elaboration meant you're doing a half-@$$39 job :)

3. Main issue was present,but explanation was too lengthy with no supporting evidence. Specific statements quoted from previously executed researches will strengthen one's case.

4. The last paragraph did not do justice to an otherwise interesting project. It should be sentence(s) that gives good impact to the reader,letting them think "so that's why this project must be undertaken".

Reflections-v1.0

Caution-this was written by the Illiterate One,so heads up!

Activity :Technical Report Writing-Introduction

Useful tips to consider in writing a good introduction:

1. You're not chasing bullet trains. Take time to decide on the content you feel appropriate to be included.

2. Adopt inverted pyramid-ish technique;

• Step 1: general statement of fact related to project undertaken
• Step 2: more specific statement on issues previously studied by researchers
• Step 3: statement indicating further investigation 

3. The content of the Introduction section varies depending on research undertaken.

4. Follow the Grail (in this case,standard elements of the Introduction Part)

• Background of the Study
• Statement of Problem
• Purpose of Study
• Objective of Study
• Research Questions
• Significance of Study
• Scope of Study